Instructional Design is the analysis of learning needs and the promotion of carefully considered instructional methods. There are a variety of instructional design models, which each offer a method that will assist the learner acquire the knowledge, improve ability and create a positive learning experience for the recipient of the instruction.
Select the links below to learn more about Instructional Design and theorists:
- http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/index.html
- http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm
- http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc/idmodels.html
Theorists whom are significant in the field of Instructional Design include Robert M. Gagné, Dr. Robert Mager, Malcom Knowles, Edgar Dale, Jerome Bruner, David Jonassen, and Roger Schank, along with several others.
| Instructional Method | Characteristics | Example * |
| Didactic Method | Lecture format Instructor-led Knowledge level (Bloom) Factual information One-way instruction Low interactional. |
On a computer, the learner is presented with several consecutive screens of information with illustrations describing the function of each of the components. After reviewing the information, the learner is asked to identify the components by matching the name of each component to pictures. |
| Socratic Method | Socratic teaching promotes critical thinking; it is an approach that teaches by asking not telling. This method of instruction focuses on giving students questions, not answers. The inquiry model is applied by continually probing into the subject with questions. Students are focused by the disciplined and self-assessing manner and the logical relationships that result from such disciplined thought, prepare the student for Socratic questioning. | Using computer-based instruction often turns the tables on students by having them do assignments, which puts them in the position of a teacher, and to teach is to learn.
The large scale availabilityof resources via the internet enables students to research and discover a question asked of students. If I asked my students, “Why shouldn’t we use drugs?” The responsibility of answering the question is the students, and they bring the answer back to the instructor and/or classmates, with supporting information to back up their statements. |
| Direct Instruction | Direct instruction is widely used throughout educational institutions in both K-12 and higher education.
Students are generally assigned to read a text, or take notes on new material; a discussion may follow. Students then work through examples and expected to ask questions pertaining to the lesson. From that point, students are prepared to work independently on an assignment checking for the students’ acquisition of the presented material. When the class meets again, the teacher assessing the students achievement of the given lesson objectives. The students will review material to ensure periodically for comprehension. |
Presenting students with information on Keyboarding skills, by text or student notetaking. Students would then practice the skill on a computer keyboard. The teacher may observe, and correct hand and finger placement.
The students would be given more time to work through keyboarding exercises to increase competence. Students would then be tested for keyboarding skills. Later, students may have review activities to retain skills. |
| Mastery Learning | Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) model of Robert Mager is an integral part Mastery Instruction, as in Skinner’s expectation of meeting the needs of the individualized learner, and providing feedback for instructional assessment is essential to Mastery Learning.
Mastery learning maintains students to achieve an expected level of achievement. The students will progress further until Mastery is met. Mastery levels are regularly set for students in reading or students that may have IEPs or another form of individualized instruction. |
Computer learning tools such as Accelerated Reader are excellent example technology-based Mastery instructional methods. Students select books based upon their own reading level. The students read the books at their own pace then take a computer based exam in which they must generally receive an 80% in order to obtain mastery. Using Accelerated Reader provides individualized instruction by allowing students to proceed to another book based on their own performance.
If a student is unable to pass a test they are expected to remain at the same level until the designated achievement is met. Depending on the program director in a school students may take a different test the second time. |
| Discovery Learning | Discovery Learning has an array of exemplary theorists such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. According to Dewey “There is an intimate and necessary relationship between the processes of actual experience and education.” Discovery Learning relies on students to build upon prior knowledge. A student’s ability to conjugate verbs in an English class could provide a determining factor in their ability to grasp the conjugation of verbs in French or other foreign language class.
An easy way to recognize Discovery Learning is to think of the “A-ha,” in learning, or the “light bulb,” which the students face displays evidence that they have made a discovery. |
Learning in a technology environment lends itself to the Discovery Learning Method. This can be demonstrated in a classroom in which students create a school newspaper by using a tool such as Microsoft Publisher.
Students are learning elements of journalism, honing in their writing abilities, while also learning layout and production techniques. The creation of the newspaper depends on the prior ability to express themselves in written language, and basic computer competencies. The “a-ha” moment would generally take place once a student has been able to participate in the process in which the end result would be “now I know how to do this.” |
| Active Learning | Student-centered method in which students are able to collaborate as opposed to a competitive method of learning. Students are able to work in groups or are able to negotiate ideas amongst peers during the learning process.
Learning takes place in a conceptive environment with multiple complexities, which are similar to the expectations that can be found in a workplace. |
Curriculum based instruction that will allow the students to listen, read, and record information, but adds the development, creation, and completed project.
Instead of writing a paper of the Sons of Liberty, students would begin with background research on the Sons of Liberty, and then proceed to debate the rational presenting possibly a computer-based website in which both sides are explored, and students then determine whether the Boston Tea Party was a justifiable form of protest. During peer presentation, the group would be expected to answer questions pertaining to their position on whether the Boston Tea Party was justifiable. |
| Experiential Learning | “We don’t receive wisdom; we must discover it for ourselves after a journey that no one can take for us or spare us.” Marcel Proust Experimental learning engages students in an activity, reflect upon the activity, use their analytical skills to draw from the experience some useful insight, and then incorporate their new understanding(s) into their daily lives. Experiential learning goals are to gain the interest and involvement of the learner. |
While studying the geological aspects of the Pacific Rim, learners could create a simulation of a volcanic eruption. Learners may record in a scientific journal the method, results, and analyze the effects that occur in a natural occurring volcanic eruption. |
| Authentic Approach | An authentic approach to learning is also described as “performance-based, realistic, and instructionally appropriate,” (Pett 1990). Every instructor at one time or another has been asked, “why are we doing this?” The authentic approach answers that question |
Using an internet source such as MapQuest or Google Maps, have students research bicycling or driving routes that would be their best route to get from home to school. As an assignment have students use the maps instead of simply having students work in a workbook on map skills.
Students will learn to use a map from a workbook, but the real life application will increase their ability to transfer the information. Students could further the lesson by creating a legend, and examining different routes. |
| Adaptive Approach | Adaptive Approach addressed the individual and whole class. This method integrates students with special needs and recognizes that students learn in different ways. Adaptive Approach allows different amounts of time, rates of instruction, materials, and variety of strategies to master objectives. Critics state the lack of human interaction amongst peers and teacher-led learning diminishes the success of the Adaptive Approach Model. The Adaptive learning approach is going through philosophical changes that will further its effectiveness. |
While providing for individual needs interactive tutoring systems they lack the “human,” element in learning. An example of an Adaptive Approach is a computer-based tutoring system, in which a student progresses through a class, or tutorial without peer interaction, or teacher pedagogy.
There are reading and math software programs that will determine a student’s ability level. The student may then progress at their own pace. |
| Cooperative Learning | Cooperative Learning began as a formal approach in the 1960s. The premise is basic: students learn through social interaction. Student learning takes place through talking. Talking while solving a problem, completing a task, or working on a project.
Success depends upon active participation of the group. Each member of the group must contribute in order for achievement to occur. |
A group of students, four, as an example working on a PowerPoint presentation in which each member of the group conducting research on an aspect of teen alcohol and drug usage. Each individual in a group would take responsibility for researching one of the following:
1. Research the current trends in teen drug usage. 2. Report effects of various forms of abused substances on the brain and body 3. Recognition of alcohol and drug usage in teens and young adults 4. Consequences and treatment for drug and alcohol abuse. Each member of the group has their own responsibilities, but each member would be responsible for educating each other, and creating a groupmultimediaa presentation such as PowerPoint. |
| Anchored Instruction | Anchored Instruction is based upon a real-life learning situation. Learning is “anchored” by providing students with the expectation of not simply finding an answer, but using the answers in practical applications. | Learners would design and create an outdoor classroom. The care of plants and landscaping needs would be conducted through technology. Learners would research plants that are suitable for the geographic area in which they live.
Learners would also use computer-generated charts and graphs to explain how they made informed decisions on which plants are most suitable for their environment. The research would then be used to create and maintain an outdoor classroom. |
| Problem-Based | Problem-Based learning has more than one possible solution and requires investigation, the use of various resources, and collaboration. Social Studies is a perfect discipline for this learning method Through the process, students develop critical-thinking skills and communication skills. The investigation on the part of the learner facilitates greater ownership of his/her education. |
Students would investigate and debate the creation a landfill waste site. The “Not in My Backyard” vs. the benefits to the community overall. Students would be required to investigate both sides of the issue and provide a solid foundation for their position.
After reading both sides, possibly including video clips, readers could submit a vote for the side that argued their case best. The debate could then be determined by a larger audience if the material were published on a web site, or blog. |
| Project-Based | Student learning is achieved by having students work on a specific task. After sufficient instructional information is provided students then become the proliferators of the own learning while the teacher becomes more of a guide of facilitator of learning. Project-Based learning intends for the learning to participate in the group according to his/her talent, or strengths
Block scheduling is an asset to project-based learning, since students generally do not work outside of class. More time is spent on the project, as opposed to preparing to work, and needing to stop after just after starting. |
Students studying the Medieval Period in Europe would utilize technology to provide visual and written information. The information would be applied as a group worked to create a Medieval Project with teacher-provided criteria.
An example of this model is conducting research on castles of the high middle ages then designing and creating a historic model of a castle. For online learning students can collaborate on aspects of regional feudalism. Learners would share key information, daily life, and social and military insight specific to a region during the high middle ages. |
| Situated Learning | McClellan lists characteristics of situated cognition: “apprenticeship, collaboration, reflection, coaching, multiple practices, and articulation of learning skills, realistic representations, and technology.”
Situation Learning exhibits apprentice-like qualities. Students learn similar to a tradesman would fine-tune his/her craft from an expert. According to Jean Lave, the language used in Math texts detract from students actually benefit from the skills the text is trying to evoke. |
Situated Learning is valuable to students. Learning technology because its technology would not provide real-life applications. Students learning a PowerPoint because it’s there is not relevant. An instructor could provide a model of expectations in a PowerPoint.
A teacher could model PowerPoint to demonstrate how to instruct classmates based upon the research they have done is relevant.
Students would be expected to ask and respond to questions asked by fellow students Instructor could create a test pulling PowerPoint Presentations done by the entire class. |
| Simulations | “What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; what I do, I understand.” Confucius, 451 BC Children demonstrate simulated learning without anyone introducing them to it. They call it “pretend.” Students “pretend” to be in a particular situation, and learn through facing challenges and making decisions based upon the challenge. Simulations can provide insight and experience in decision making and consequences without having to actually live out the situation. They have the opportunity to “put themselves in someone else’s shoes.” Students draw on the simulated learning applications in later situations they encounter in real life. |
The Truman Presidential Library offers a well-developed example of simulations. Students attend the library as a field trip, and are given roles to play in the Truman Presidency. The students become diplomats, members of the press, Truman, and his cabinet. The students are presented with one out of three possible problems:
The students are presented with information the way President Truman was, without prior knowledge, (or very little). The consequences are as much of the learning process as the decision making is. Simulations based upon technology are used in various situations. Computer Simulations may include:
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| Constructivism | Constructivism learning is defined as a “receptive act that involves construction of new meaning by learners within the context of their current knowledge, previous experience, and social environment” (Bloom; Perlmutter & Burrell) Learners and teachers need to be aware that we live in a world with a variety of perspectives and opinions. The diversity of cultures and issues can be some of the many challenges in a constructivist setting. Instructional technology constructivism approach can create an enriched learning environment for all learners. | Open-ended assignments are found in a constructivism classroom. Learners may all be assigned to read a biography, and create a book report, but each learner will determine the method of delivery.
An effective instructor will provide examples of quality work and ask probing questions to ensure students will meet the standards expected. Rubrics are extremely useful in Constructivist Learning environment. The rubric does not tell how a student must complete the assigned task, but it does give the expectations of the outcome.
Produce and/or “star,” in a biographical video on their book.
Each student is reading a biographical book, but the students are able deliver the information in their own designated means. |
| *Developed for educators to integrate technology. P. Dunnington
Sources on Instructional Design include: http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc/idmodels.html |
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